As a person active in the area of competition, I
work with both the laws made by man (the legislation) and with the economic
laws – the theories summarizing the reactions and the effects induced by certain market conditions, which
the man can only ascertain and, sometimes, may try to influence, but it cannot repeal.
One of these laws, perhaps
less famous, is the Baxter's law, an economic theory formulated by a law professor
(!). The theory expressed by Professor
William Baxter explains how the
effects of a regulated monopoly may spill-over into non-regulated
industries. William Francis Baxter Jr., who gave his name to this law was professor
of antitrust law at Stanford
University and also served
as Assistant Attorney General for antitrust matters. Among his activities, he contributed
to the break-up of the giant AT&T, the largest in the history of the Sherman
Antitrust Act, dividing AT&T up into seven regional phone
companies in 1982 (the "Baby Bells", named after the most famous brand of the old AT&T). Most of these companies raised, later on, back to the status
of giants – Verizon and the current AT&T.
Baxter's law is applied to the industries
where the incumbent is a monopolist (regulated) on
the upstream market and is active also in the downstream but not regulated
markets. In the upstream market the monopolist
will be forced to capped prices, in a way or another.
The basic economic
theory known as ICE (Internalizing Complementary Externalities) states that
when a monopolist wants to expand its monopoly power into other markets,
downstream, such an expansion should be regarded rather as pro-competitive,
because the monopolist would not do that unless it is able to compete – it is
at least as efficient or more efficient than the competitors. The monopolist will
can extract its monopoly rent by increasing the prices in the market in which
is a monopolist but not in the other markets.
Baxter's Law is an exception
to the ICE theory. Professor Baxter argued that monopolies which are regulated
(with capped prices) cannot fully extract their monopoly rent and will attempt to
monopolize related markets in which their monopolized service/product is a
necessary input. Baxter's law thus explains that the monopolist is able to use
its monopoly in the upstream market in order to capture a monopoly rent at
another level, where it is no longer limited by the regulation. An unregulated
monopolist could suffer losses in the market in which is a monopolist, that could
offset the gains in the unregulated market but a regulated monopolist will
suffer smaller losses because its price is already capped. The upstream monopolist will still have full
gains in the unregulated market and therefore will seek to expand its monopoly.
An example of Baxter's law works is
the market for internet access, before the broadband age. If the regulator
capped the price for the switched circuits offered by the telephone companies
(the land lines), those companies cannot extract monopoly rents from the access
network. Responding to this constraint, the phone companies who have a monopoly
but this is regulated extend their business and service to unregulated
markets, such as those for applications. The point is that, compared to rivals
in these market, monopolies were able to offer lower rates (based on costs) for
the same service because of their vertical integration. Such revenues from the
unregulated markets can offset the loss due to regulation in monopoly market
and increase overall profits.
The point is that monopolists which prices are capped by
regulation have all the incentives and should extend in the connected markets
in order to offset the result of the capped prices and optimize their overall
incomes. A corollary to this theory could be that if the monopolists subject to
the price regulation do not extend in the unregulated markets, this might be a
sign that the price regulation is too lax – the prices set by the regulator are
too high and thus they succeed in capturing the monopoly rent or at least a significant part
of it, for the monopolist.